Central adrenal insufficiency: who, when, and how? From the evidence to the controversies - an exploratory review

ABSTRACT Central adrenal insufficiency (CAI) is a life-threatening disorder. This occurs when ACTH production is insufficient, leading to low cortisol levels. Since corticosteroids are crucial to many metabolic responses under organic stress and inflammatory conditions, CAI recognition and prompt treatment are vital. However, the diagnosis of CAI is challenging. This is not only because its clinical presentation is usually oligosymptomatic, but also because the CAI laboratory investigation presents many pitfalls. Thus, the clarification of when to use each test could be helpful in many contexts. The CAI challenge is also involved in treatment: Several formulations of synthetic steroids exist, followed by the lack of a biomarker for glucocorticoid replacement. This review aims to access all available literature to synthesize important topics about who should investigate CAI, when it should be suspected, and how CAI must be treated.

Combined pituitary hormone deficiency caused by PROP1 mutations: update 20 years post-discovery

ABSTRACT The first description of patients with combined pituitary hormone deficiencies (CPHD) caused by PROP1 mutations was made 20 years ago. Here we updated the clinical and genetic characteristics of patients with PROP1 mutations and summarized the phenotypes of 14 patients with 7 different pathogenic PROP1 mutations followed at the Hospital das Clínicas of the University of Sao Paulo. In addition to deficiencies in GH, TSH, PRL and gonadotropins some patients develop late ACTH deficiency. Therefore, patients with PROP1 mutations require permanent surveillance. On magnetic resonance imaging, the pituitary stalk is normal, and the posterior lobe is in the normal position. The anterior lobe in patients with PROP1 mutations is usually hypoplastic but may be normal or even enlarged. Bi-allelic PROP1 mutations are currently the most frequently recognized genetic cause of CPHD worldwide. PROP1 defects occur more frequently among offspring of consanguineous parents and familial cases, but they also occur in sporadic cases, especially in countries in which the prevalence of PROP1 mutations is relatively high. We classified all reported PROP1 variants described to date according to the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the Association for Molecular Pathology (ACMG-AMP) guidelines: 29 were pathogenic, 2 were likely pathogenic, and 2 were of unknown significance. An expansion of the phenotype of patients with PROP1 mutations was observed since the first description 20 years ago: variable anterior pituitary size, different pathogenic mutations, and late development of ACTH deficiency. PROP1 mutations are the most common cause of autosomal recessive CPHD with a topic posterior pituitary lobe. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2019;63(2):167-74

Growth hormone deficiency with advanced bone age: phenotypic interaction between GHRH receptor and CYP21A2 mutations diagnosed by sanger and whole exome sequencing

SUMMARY Isolated growth hormone deficiency (IGHD) is the most common pituitary hormone deficiency and, clinically, patients have delayed bone age. High sequence similarity between CYP21A2 gene and CYP21A1P pseudogene poses difficulties for exome sequencing interpretation. A 7.5 year-old boy born to second-degree cousins presented with severe short stature (height SDS −3.7) and bone age of 6 years. Clonidine and combined pituitary stimulation tests revealed GH deficiency. Pituitary MRI was normal. The patient was successfully treated with rGH. Surprisingly, at 10.8 years, his bone age had advanced to 13 years, but physical exam, LH and testosterone levels remained prepubertal. An ACTH stimulation test disclosed a non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency explaining the bone age advancement and, therefore, treatment with cortisone acetate was added. The genetic diagnosis of a homozygous mutation in GHRHR (p.Leu144His), a homozygous CYP21A2 mutation (p.Val282Leu) and CYP21A1P pseudogene duplication was established by Sanger sequencing, MLPA and whole-exome sequencing. We report the unusual clinical presentation of a patient born to consanguineous parents with two recessive endocrine diseases: non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia modifying the classical GH deficiency phenotype. We used a method of paired read mapping aided by neighbouring mis-matches to overcome the challenges of exome-sequencing in the presence of a pseudogene.

An activating mutation in the CRHR1 gene is rarely associated with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism in poodles

OBJECTIVES: Pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism is the most common cause of naturally occurring hypercortisolism in dogs. CRHR1 expression in human and dog corticotrophinomas suggested that this gene affects pituitary tumorigenesis. The present study aimed to investigate mutations in the CRHR1 coding region in poodles with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism. METHODS: Fifty poodles with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism and 50 healthy poodles were studied. Genomic DNA was amplified by PCR and analyzed by Sanger sequencing. RESULTS: The novel CRHR1 p.V97M mutation was identified in one dog. This valine residue, located in the amino-terminal extracellular domain, exhibits high affinity for its corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) ligand. Bioinformatic analysis revealed structural rearrangements in the mutant protein, with a 17% increase in the surface binding affinity between CRHR1 and CRH. In vitro functional studies showed that mutant CRHR1 induced higher ACTH secretion than the wild type after stimulation with human CRH. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that germline activating mutations in CRHR1 may be a rare cause of pituitary hyperadrenocorticism in poodles.

PROP1 overexpression in corticotrophinomas: evidence for the role of PROP1 in the maintenance of cells committed to corticotrophic differentiation

OBJECTIVE: The expression of transcription factors involved in early pituitary development, such as PROP1 and POU1F1, has been detected in pituitary adenoma tissues. In this study, we sought to characterize the transcriptional profiles of PROP1, POU1F1, and TBX19 in functioning and nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas in an attempt to identify their roles in tumorigenesis and hormone hypersecretion. METHODS: RT-qPCR analyses were performed to assess the transcriptional pattern of PROP1, POU1F1, TBX19, and hormone-producing genes in tissue samples of corticotrophinomas (n = 10), somatotrophinomas (n = 8), and nonfunctioning adenomas (n = 6). RESULTS: Compared with normal pituitary tissue, POU1F1 was overexpressed in somatotrophinomas by 3-fold. PROP1 expression was 18-fold higher in corticotrophinomas, 10-fold higher in somatotrophinomas, and 3-fold higher in nonfunctioning adenomas. TBX19 expression was 27-fold higher in corticotrophinomas. Additionally, the level of TBX19 mRNA positively correlated with that of pro-opiomelanocortin (r = 0.49, p = 0.014). CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate that PROP1 is overexpressed in pituitary adenomas, mainly in corticotrophinomas. Together with previously published data showing that patients who harbor PROP1 loss-of-function mutations present a progressive decline in corticotrope function, our results support a role for PROP1 in pituitary tumor development and in the maintenance of cell lineages committed to corticotrophic differentiation. .

PROP1 and CTNNB1 expression in adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas with or without β-catenin mutations

INTRODUCTION: Activating mutations in exon 3 of the β-catenin gene are involved in the pathogenesis of adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas. Recently, the interaction between β-catenin and PROP1 has been shown to be responsible for pituitary cell lineage determination. We hypothesized that dysregulated PROP1 expression could also be involved in the pathogenesis of craniopharyngiomas OBJECTIVES: To determine whether dysregulated gene expression was responsible for tumor pathogenesis in adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas, the β-catenin gene was screened for mutations, and the expression of the β-catenin gene and PROP1 was evaluated. β-catenin gene was amplified and sequenced from 14 samples of adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas. PROP1 and β-catenin gene expression was assessed by real-time RT-PCR from 12 samples, and β-catenin immunohistochemistry was performed on 11 samples. RESULTS: Mutations in the β-catenin gene were identified in 64 percent of the adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas samples. Evidence of β-catenin gene overexpression was found in 71 percent of the tumors with β-catenin mutations and in 40 percent of the tumors without mutations, and β-catenin immunohistochemistry revealed a nuclear staining pattern for each of the analyzed samples. PROP1 expression was undetectable in all of the tumor samples. CONCLUSION: We found evidence of β-catenin gene overexpression in the majority of adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas, and we also detected a nuclear β-catenin staining pattern regardless of the presence of a bcatenin gene mutation. These results suggest that WNT signaling activation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas. Additionally, this study was the first to evaluate PROP1 expression in adamantinomatous craniopharyngiomas, and the absence of PROP1 expression indicates that this gene is not involved in the pathogenesis of this tumor, at least in this cohort.

Tratamento da deficiência do hormônio de crescimento (GH) em crianças: comparação entre o uso de canetas versus frascos/seringas para a aplicação do GH / Growth hormone (GH) deficiency treatment in children: comparison between uses of pen versus bottles/syringes on GH administration

O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar as duas apresentações de GH recombinante humano (rGH) para tratamento da deficiência de GH (DGH). Dez crianças pré-púberes portadoras de DGH foram acompanhadas durante 6 meses. Elas receberam, por 3 meses, injeções com seringa e, a seguir, com canetas por mais 3 meses. A aceitabilidade foi avaliada através de questionário. O desperdício foi calculado através da diferença entre o número de frascos/refis utilizados e o previsto para o período. A resposta ao tratamento foi avaliada pelo ganho em desvio-padrão (DP) de altura medido a cada 3 meses. Após 6 meses, 90 por cento dos pacientes/familiares afirmaram preferir a caneta em termos de facilidade técnica e dor local, e todos consideraram a caneta melhor em termos de facilidade de transporte e armazenamento. O desperdício foi menor com a caneta, assim como o custo. Concluímos que a administração de rGH através de caneta é mais conveniente, melhor aceita pelos pacientes e resulta em menor desperdício quando comparada com o tratamento por seringa.

The aim of this study was to compare two preparations of recombinant human GH (rGH) in the treatment of GH deficient patients. Ten prepubertal GH-deficient children were followed during 6 months. They received injections with syringe for 3 months, followed by pen administration for the subsequent 3 months. Acceptability was evaluated through a questionnaire. Waste of medication was calculated by the difference between the number of used bottles or refills and the calculated amount for the period. Treatment response was evaluated by SDS gain of height measured each 3 months. After 6 months, 90 percent of patients/family members declared they preferred the pen regarding technical facility and local pain, and all patients considered the pen easier to transport and store. The waste of medication was lower with pen administration, as was the final cost. We concluded that pen-administered rGH treatment is more convenient, better accepted by the patients, and leads to less waste of medication when compared to the syringe administration.

Bases genéticas dos distúrbios de crescimento / Genetic bases of growth disorders

A integridade do eixo GHRH-GH-IGF-I é fundamental para o crescimento normal de um indivíduo. Mutações nos genes responsáveis por cada uma das etapas deste eixo resultam em baixa estatura grave. Podemos dividir os distúrbios de crescimento em: 1. Deficiência de GH associada a deficiências de outros hormônios hipofisários por alterações em fatores de transcriçäo envolvidos na organogênese hipofisária (HESX1/RPX, LHX3 e LHX4, PROP-1, PIT-1); 2. Deficiência isolada de GH (receptor do GHRH:GHRHR, GH-1, GH bioinativo); e 3. Insensibilidade ao GH (receptor de GH:GHR, gene da IGF-I e receptor da IGF-I:IGFR). Seräo discutidos também os genes implicados na baixa estatura da Síndrome de Turner (SHOX) e Síndrome de Noonan (PTPN11). Atualmente estamos analisando no Laboratório de Hormónios e Genética Molecular da Disciplina de Endocrinologia da FMUSP - LIM 42 os genes HESX-1, LHX3, LHX4, PROP-1, GHRHR, GH-1, GHR, SHOX e PTPN11 em pacientes com baixa estatura e características clínicas e laboratoriais que sugerem o envolvimento destes genes.

Telarca reversível espontaneamente em meninas pré-púberes durante o tratamento com hormônio de crescimento recombinante humano / Reversible thelarche spontaneously in pre-puberal girls during of the treatment with human recombinant growth hormone

OBJETIVO: Descriçäo de 4 casos de desenvolvimento transitório de mamas em meninas pré-púberes tratadas com hormônio de crescimento recombinante humano (rhGH). CASUíSTICA E MÉTODOS: Quatro meninas pré-púberes com baixa estatura, duas com síndrome de Turner (ST) e duas com deficiência de hormônio de crescimento (DGH). O desenvolvimento das mamas (Tanner II e III) ocorreu com idade cronológica (IC) de 5,6 e 7,7 anos e idade óssea (10) de 5,7 a 6,9 anos, 2 a 60 meses após o inicio do tratamento com rhGH na dose de 0,1 - 0,15U/kg/d. Todas as pacientes apresentaram regressäo espontânea da telarca num período de 8 a 15 meses. Três pacientes foram submetidas ao teste de estímulo com GnRH apresentando resposta pré-puberal de LH. DISCUSSäO: O desenvolvimento de mamas após o início do tratamento com rhGH tem sido relatado em meninos, mas näo em meninas pré-púberes. Concluímos que o rhGH pode induzir ao desenvolvimento transitório das mamas, também em meninas, sem a ativaçäo do eixo hipotálamo-hipófise-gonadal, näo se fazendo necessária a supressäo da puberdade.

Descompensaçäo cardíaca pós-intoxicaçäo exógena por estricnina: relato de caso / Cardiac descompensation from exogenous intoxication by strychnine: case report

Apresentamos o caso de um paciente intoxicado por estricnina que evoluiu com Insuficiência Cardíaca Congestiva diagnosticada através de ecocardiograma e parâmetros hemodinâmicos conseguidos através de cateter de Swan-Ganz. A intoxicaçao por estricnina nao é comumente encontrada devido à proibiçao de sua comercializaçao, especial atençao tem sido dada a esta droga devido ao seu uso na manufatura de drogas como a cocaína. Alguns autores mostram que a estricnina age sobre centros vasomotores alterando pressao arterial durante as convulsoes, outros mostraram arritmias durante as convulsoes, mas nao comprovaram a existência de cardiotoxidade pela estricnina. A monitorizaçao hemodinâmica foi de bastante auxílio neste caso nao só no sentido de guiar a terapêutica mas também no diagnóstico diferencial do edema pulmonar que, em se tratando de paciente hígido e jovem poderia facilmente ser rotulado como edema "nao cardiogênico". Embora a intoxicaçao por estricnina seja de altíssima mortalidade, com o suporte hemodinâmico e respiratório adequado proporcionamos uma recuperaçao total do paciente, sem seqüela neurológica, renal e pulmonar.

Bócio uninodular tóxico em uma criança de 11 anos de idade: relato de caso / Uninodular toxic goiter in an 11 year-old child: case report

A disfunção da glândula tiróide na infância é uma entidade rara e de significado clínico importante, já que aproximadamente dos nódulos nesta faixa etária expresam característica de malignidade, relatamos um caso de bócio nodular tóxico em uma criança de 11 anos de idade que apresentava história clínica de 3 anos de evolução caracterizada por um nódulo palpável em região cervical anterior e um quadro leve de tirotoxicose. Após a confirmação da autonomia do nódulo e descartada a hipótese de hemiagenesia da glândula tiróide, a paciente foi submetida a tiroidectomia subtotal (lobectomia direita), uma vez que este é o tratamento de escolha nesta faixa etária. No pós-operatório, a paciente evoluiu clinicamente eutiroidiana e permanece em acompanhamento no nosso serviço